Các nhân tố ảnh hưởng đến ý định ứng dụng kế toán tinh gọn trong các công ty Fintech tại Việt Nam
Working Paper 2021.2.3.08
- Vol 2, No 3
CÁC NHÂN TỐ ẢNH HƯỞNG ĐẾN Ý ĐỊNH ỨNG DỤNG KẾ TOÁN TINH
GỌN TRONG CÁC CÔNG TY FINTECH TẠI VIỆT NAM
Trần Nguyên Hạnh1
Sinh viên K56 CLC Kế toán kiểm toán định hướng ACCA - Khoa Kế toán Kiểm toán
Trường Đại học Ngoại thương, Hà Nội, Việt Nam
Nguyễn Quang Huy
Giảng viên Khoa Kế toán Kiểm toán
Trường Đại học Ngoại thương, Hà Nội, Việt Nam
Tóm tắt
Nghiên cứu được thực hiện nhằm xác minh các nhân tố ảnh hưởng đến ý định ứng dụng kế toán
tinh gọn trong các công ty Fintech tại Việt Nam. Nghiên cứu đã tích hợp ba mô hình lý thuyết: Mô
hình hành vi có hoạch định, mô hình khuyếch tán đổi mới đổi mới và mô hình chấp nhận công
nghệ. Kết quả phân tích từ 108 kế toán viên phần lớn đang công tác tại Hà Nội cho thấy ý định ứng
dụng kế toán tinh gọn chịu ảnh hưởng bởi (1) tính dễ sử dụng được cảm nhận và (2) khả năng dùng
thử. Trong khi đó, lợi thế tương đối, thái độ và khả năng quan sát được giữ vai trò không đáng kể.
Kết quả nghiên cứu là tài liệu tham khảo cho các chủ doanh nghiệp và kế toán viên hiểu đúng về
quy trình kế toán nội bộ tinh gọn. Từ đó, các nhà quản lý có thể phát triển một hệ thống tinh gọn,
hướng tới mục tiêu cải thiện hiệu suất công việc và tối đa hóa giá trị cho khách hàng.
Từ khóa: kế toán tinh gọn, công ty fintech, ý định sử dụng, hoạt động tinh gọn.
FACTORS AFFECTING INTENTION TO USE LEAN ACCOUNTING AT
FINTECH COMPANIES IN VIETNAM
Abstract
The aim of this study is to verify the factors affecting the intention to use lean accounting at Fintech
companies in Vietnam. To investigate this phenomenon, the theory of planned behavior, the
innovation diffusion theory, and the technology acceptance model had been integrated. An online
survey was distributed to accountants, mainly accountants in Hanoi, collecting a total of 108
respondents. From five proposed research factors, the findings show that the perceived ease of use
and trialability had a positive and significant relationship with the intention to use lean accounting.
Whereas, the relative advantage, attitude and observability were found to be insignificant. The
results of this study will serve as a reference for business owners and acscountants to understand
1 Tác giả liên hệ, Email: k56.1718820028@ftu.edu.vn
FTU Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No. 3 (09/2021) | 101
internal lean accounting processes with the right awareness and to develop a lean system while
improving work performance and maximizing values for customers.
Keywords: lean accounting, fintech companies, intention to use, lean operation.
1. Introduction
The development of the Fintech companies in Vietnam is on the rise. In 2015, the number of
startups in the Fintech sector was 44, by 2020, this number climbed more than 2.7 times, reaching
123 startups. This is fueled by the explosion of e-commerce as people are increasingly in favor of
online consumption and payment. Along with that is strong support from Vietnamese State’s
policies, especially for high-tech services industries2.
Fintech company is considered to be a lean organization. According to Sheahan (2017), lean
organizations are “firms that have adopted the lean methodology into their business model”. Its
ultimate goal is “to provide perfect value to the customer through a perfect value creation process
that has zero waste.” (Lean Enterprise Institute, 2018). There is hardly any definition that can help
readers instantly understand and clearly visualize a lean organization. However, it can be said that
most lean organizations are clearly expressed through lean operation and management, which
emphasizes the process speed and quality improvement through reduction of waste.
Moreover, lean accounting is strictly integrated in these lean operation and management.
Without a lean accounting system, there is no alignment between lean practices and the
information company management will be receiving to understand how well the lean business is
performing (Katko & Luca, 2020). A lean accounting process is expected to transform Fintech
companies into true lean models, with the most modern and optimal technology applications. In
fact, lean accounting has brought numerous benefits to Fintech companies, from receiving orders,
billing, instant payments, bookkeepping and tax-filling, all are automated on the cloud-based
software. This enabled fintech companies to cut manually administrative costs, reduce the
receivable turnover cycle, and allow them to make pre-emptive decisions or to react instantly to
evolving financial situations thanks to the ability to access real-time financial information analysis,
forecasting, budgeting, and resource management.
In the world, research on lean accounting mainly focuses on manufacturing enterprises. In
addition, currently in the world and in Vietnam, there is no research on accounting systems in
Fintech companies. Considering this as a research gap, as a primitive study, the author chooses the
topic "Factors affecting intention to use lean accounting at Fintech companies in Vietnam" for the
papper.
2
Nation Agency for Technology Entrepreneurship and Commercialization Development is established in 2016 to
incubate businesses and provide financial support to tech startups; Corporate income tax reduction for companies working in the
high-tech sector or high tech zones is set at the preferential tax rate of 10% for 15 years or of 17% for 10 years compared to the
normal tax rate of 20% (Government, 2016); Regulatory Fintech sandbox on Project "Plan on restructuring the service industry to
2020, with an orientation to 2025" is on the process (Government, 2017).
FTU Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No. 3 (09/2021) | 102
2. Theoretical framework of lean accounting
2.1. Definition and characteristics of lean accounting
Introbooks (2015, pp.65) perceived lean accounting as the common term used for the changes
necessary to a company’s accounting, organizing, measurement and executive process to maintain
lean manufacturing and lean thinking. Aligning financial management with company’s Lean
strategies, lean accounting improves not only the accounting affairs but the entire economics of
your business.
According to Katko (2020), lean accounting is defined as “the management accounting system
for a lean organization. It provides the relevant financial and nonfinancial information necessary
to execute the lean strategy and drive financial success.” With the same view, an article on
Kanbantool website (2020) pointed out that lean accounting “describes the financial reporting
practices used by a company that embraces Lean thinking: focusing on the value delivered to the
client and on waste elimination, through better workflow and material management”.
Among the preceding definitions, lean accounting definition mentioned by Katko and
Kanbantool (2020) is compatible with the author's viewpoint and is used in this study. There are
three key characteristics in it:
Firstly, lean accounting provides both financial and non-financial information. The financial
statements used in lean accounting are concise summaries of financial transactions over an
accounting period, which helps analyzing company's operations, financial position and cash flows.
(Fernado, 2021). Futhermore, lean accounting could provide a knowledge base for effectively
making decisions about the future, which is the main feature of management accounting.
Secondly, lean accounting focuses an organization on customer value. The deployment of lean
tools and techniques, for example: value stream costing and visual management, that create flow
and eliminate waste will bring in improved cost management and revenue growth. These are the
economics of lean.
Last but not least, lean accounting primarily focus on continuous learning. Through the use of
various lean tools and methods, employees could learn to master their work. Each employee also
possesses ideas and abilities that many leaders may not have. Therefore, their perspectives and
methods to implement their duties should also be considered and discussed.
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2.2. Lean accouting tools
Table 2.1. Comparison of the three main lean accounting tools
Value Stream
Continuous
improvement
Tool Criteria
Visual management
costing
Value stream costing
Continuous
is an accounting Visual Management is a improvement seeks to
system for tracking method designed to create a improve every process
revenues and costs visual
for an entire value controls
stream as opposed to without
workplace
communicating activities that generate
words and value for customer
with by enhancing the
Definition
individual products interruptions in process while removing as
as with standard (Chris, A, O., Murry, P., many waste activities
costing (Aaron, L., 2010).
2020).
as
possible
(Kabanize).
Improves
cross-
Allows
employees
to
functional
collaboration
synthesize and visualize the
information (signals,
The business will
always put systems in
place to analyze and
enhance its operations
on a regular basis.
instructions,
processes,
Reduces costs by
eliminating waste and
bottlenecks
Advantages
measurements)
Requires little or no prior
training to interpret
Cannot be used for
products with no
Can
easily
become
overwhelming and too
difficult to maintain
identical
material
It's possible that goals
aren't being conveyed
flow maps
Requires virtual systems
with alerts and notifications
to keep tasks moving and
Unable to show the
impact on WIP, order
properly,
managers
or
that
aren't
Disadvantages
motivated enough to
make changes.
real-time
throughput
and
provide
operating expenses of
inefficient material
flows
information
Source: Syntherized by the author
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Value Stream Costing
Value Streams represent “the series of steps that an organization uses to
implement solutions that provide a continuous flow of value to a customer”. A business may
contain one or more value streams, which is dedicated to build and support a set of solutions
delivered to the customer (SAFe, 2020). When put into lean context, value stream costing is
directly related to lean accounting system. Following that, costs, revenues and profit or loss
reporting are also developed (Maskell, B., H., and Kennedy, F., A., 2007).
Instead of controlling cost of each individual products, value stream costing aims to calculate
total cost in each value stream. There are many different ways to categorize value stream, for
example: (1) By product; (2) By process; (3) By customer. Once value stream to be defined, it is
important to identify costs. Below is an example of 02 different value stream by product groups:
product family A and product family B (Figure 2.1).
Costs charged to a value stream can be divided into 3 categories: (1) purchase costs of raw
materials and other inputs; (2) processing costs or conversion costs; (3) facility costs. Indirect cost
could be allocated on the basis of meter square occopied by each value stream. When indirect costs
cannot be directly allocated to value stream but are high, they can be allocated by using simplified
version of activity-based costing. When the indirect costs’ value is low, indirect costs are simply
recorded in the company’ income statement.
Figure 2.1. Value Stream Costing in an auto-parts factory
Source: Ruiz de Arbulo P., Fortuny J., García J., Díaz de Basurto P., Zarrabeitia E. (2012)
FTU Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No. 3 (09/2021) | 105
Visual management
Visual management aims to provide all the information with visual and auditory methods to present
simple, clear and easy-to-monitor information. It is considered to be one of the most effective ways for
companies to show the highest performance with minimal error. (Uzun, T., 2015). There are five main
purposes for using visual management: (1) Sharing information – about day-to-day operation with metrics
showinginputs, outputs, andanyproblems;(2)Buildingstandardwork;(3)SharingStandardWork –toshare
standards of how work should be completed; (4) Highlighting Problems; (5) SolvingProblems.
Continuous improvement
Opposed to traditional accounting, which defines perfection as meeting predetermined standards. In a
lean company, every employee within the value stream strive to continuously improve their processes so as
to provide perfect, high-value products and/or services to their customers. Because continuous improvement
is permanent, the accounting and measurement systems need to actively support the quest for perfection
(Maskell, B. H., & Kennedy, F. A, 2014). It is the primary method for driving customer value and waste
elimination throughout the value streams. Maskell B. H., and Bruce L. Baggaley (2006) perceived target
costing as thetool forunderstandinghowthe companycreates value forthecustomer and what must be done
to create more value”. It is used when new products are being designed and/or when the value stream team
needs to understand the changes required to increase value for the customers.
3. Research model and hypothesis
Relative Advanntage
H1
Trialibility
H4
H2
Perceived ease of use
Observability
H5
Attitude
H3
Figure 3.1. Proposed research model
Source: Syntherized bythe author
Relative advantage (RA)
RA was first identified in 1962 by E.M. Rogers as the “extent to which customers observe a new
product or service as enhanced than its substitute”. Later, in 1993, he gave it anotherdefinition as “the degree
to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it overtakes”. Mostly used with
new products or service, the term RA refers to the degree to which a particular product seems to be superior
to another already existing product. It is most often used for new goods or services: RA have a significant
impact on intention to use internet voting Carter, Lemuria, & Campbell, Ronald. (2011); It is a key factor to
theintentionto adopt competingInformationandCommunicationTechnology- ICT(Wang, Y.; et al, 2008);
and in manyother studies (Bandara, U.C. & Amarasena, S., 2018; P. W. Handayani and Z. Arifin, 2017). To
assess the impact of RA factor on Intention, the author proposes the hypothesis:
H1: The Relative advantage has a positive effect on the Intention to use lean accounting at
Fintech companies
FTU Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No. 3 (09/2021) | 106
Perceived ease of use (PE)
PE is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would
be free of physical and mental effort” (Davis, F., 1980). The easier the use, the more likely the
system would be adopted. PE is shown to have positive effect on behavioural intention to both
actual and future use Statistical Software of the Slovenian Students of Social Sciences (Alenka
Brezavšček et al, 2016). Since defined as “ease or difficulty in implementing behavior, is said to
reflect past experience as well as predictable obstacles” (Ajzen, 1980), Perceived behavioural
control factor in TpB model could be replaced by the term “Perceived ease of use” in TAM model.
In addition, factor “Ease of use” could replace Complexity determinant in Innovation diffusion
theory (Huang, C.-Y et al, 2020; Lee, Y-H. et al, 2011). Thus, the following hypothese is formed:
H2: The Perceived ease of use has a positive effect on the Intention to use lean accounting
at Fintech companies
Observability (OB)
The degree to which the effects of an innovation are apparent to the adopters is referred to as
observability. If the implementation of the innovation produces observable positive results, the
innovation is more likely to be adopted. The index of opportunities to observe other people's
interactions, as well as the visibility of advantages, can be used to analyze respondents' perceptions
of observability (Lingxian, Z., et al, 2010). Observability has significant positive influence on
behavioral intention to use online services in Saudi Arabia (Alghaith, W. et al, 2010), to use mobile
payment (Lin, W.R. et al, 2020), to adopt E-learning adoption (Lingxian, Z., et al, 2010),…There
is a scarcity of studies on the effects of observability in the field of accounting. However,
considering that Lean accounting is bringing in innovation in accounting technology, the author
proposed hypothesis:
H3: The observability has a significant positive influence on the Intention to use lean
accounting at Fintech companies
Trialibility (TR)
Trialibility is also an attribute of an innovation in Innovation diffusion theory. Trialability
refers to how likely people think they will be able to try out an innovation before determining
whether or not to implement it. Trialibility has been proved to directly affect the Intention to adopt
innovation on health (Scott, S.D, et al., 2008); on Intention to Adopt Mobile Banking Services in
Jordan (Awwad, M., & Ghadi, M., 2009); on e-book purchase intention (Hsiuli, Liao., 2016); In
some other studies, Trialability has no direct effect on the intention, but it has through Perceived
usefulness and PE (Shahrokh, N., (2019) or through Perceived usefulness and Enjoyment
(Cheolho, Y., & Dongsup, L., 2020). Accordingly, the author proposed the following hypothesis:
H4: The Trialibility is positively related the Intention to use lean accounting at Fintech
companies
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Attitude (AT)
In the original TpB model, Attitude is created by a set of beliefs that result in the behavior's
outcome through meditating factor – Intention. If the outcome or consequence of a behavior is
viewed as favorable, useful or advantageous, a person's attitude will be positive, and the intention
to engage in the behavior will be higher. The effect of attitude on intention is commonly applicable
to the study of accounting information systems (Qi, L., Ismail, S., 2019; Amin, Md., et al, 2016).
Intention factor in TAM model has also proved to be applicable to explaining consumer intention
in various technological contexts and areas. For example, attitude plays a significant role in
persuading the students' intention to use E-learning (Husseina, Z, 2016); Attitude is positively and
significantly correlated with consumer’s intention to use mobile health technology (Hussein, Z.,
et al, 2017) … From previous empirical studies, the author proposes hypothesis:
H5: The Attitude has a positive effect on the Intention to use lean accounting at Fintech
companies
4. Research findings and discussion
Group
Opinion
Female
Frequency Percentage
87,0
12,0
1
87,0
12,0
0,9
Male
GENDER
Blank
18 - 25 years old
26 - 35 years old
36 - 45 years old
Over 45 years old
85
18
1
78,7
16,7
,9
AGE
4
3,7
Bachelor's
Master's or higher
Fintech
107
1
99,1
,9
EDUCATION
20
18,5
BUSINESS
FIELD
Other
Accounting - Finance
Other
88
104
4
81,5
96,3
3,7
DEPARTMENT
Hanoi
79
22
1
73,1
20,4
,9
Ho Chi Minh
Long An
LOCATION
Blank
6
5,6
Table 4.1. Results of demographic descriptive analysis
Source: Syntherized by the author
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The data collection method for the official investigation is entirely online. After a month, the
author collected 108 valid samples. Research data were coded and cleaned on Excel, analyzed and
evaluated on SPSS software.
Results of the study showed that the number of respondents who were female was up to seven
times that of respondents who were male. Demographic statistics also show that most of the
surveyed people are very young, 78.8% are in 18-25 years old. At the same time, up to 99% of
respondents with education level is Bachelor. Thus, it can be seen that these people have a few
years of experience in the profession.
96.3% of respondents are working in the accounting department. Just a small number of
respondents, however, work for Fintech firms (18.5%). This is the most unfavorable point, as it
contradicts the author's initial emphasis on the target community of Fintech accounting-financial
staff. This can partly be attributed to the objective reason that the current proportion of Fintech
companies is extremely small compared to other businesses.
Concerning the surveyors' perceptions of impact investing. Lean accounting has been heard
of by 89.8% of survey respondents, and 80.6% understand the definition. This demonstrates that
Lean accounting is a well-known and simple term. However, this statistic does not guarantee that
the surveyor comprehends the principle of lean accounting as well as other practical applications.
Relative
Trialibility
Attitude
Perceived ease of
Figure 4.1. Results of the research model
Source: Syntherized by the author
Shown by linear regression analysis and multivariate regression, PE is the component that has
the closest relationship with IN. This can be explained by the fact that the ease with which
accounting approaches and lean accounting reporting can be implemented has a significant impact
on survey respondents' intentions to use Lean accounting. When implementing an innovation in
an organization, this often indicaties a worry about its complexity. TR, or the desire to try the lean
accounting system, is the second element influencing IN, aligning with the author's hypothesis.
Although 77.8% of survey respondents say that their businesses apply Lean accounting, these
businesses may not fully exploit the potential of this system. Therefore, surveyors want to have a
chance to experience the system before use.
Although there is a quite high Pearson Correlation with IN, the AT factor is excluded from
the model since the significance of Coefficients lower than 0.05. This shows that there is linear
relationship between IN and AT because the factor IN has a positive effect on AT. The regression
coefficient of RA < 0, negatively affects dependent variable IN. This is unreasonable and contrary
to the results from all previous studies.
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According to the findings of the empirical study, perceived ease of use and trialability are two
variables that influence the intention to use lean accounting, with perceived ease of use having a
higher impact level. Meanwhile, the three initial hypotheses that the relative advantage, trialability,
and observability have a positive impact on intention are all rejected.
5. Suggestion and implications to develop lean accounting at fintech companies in vietnam
5.1. Suggestion to develop lean accounting at fintech companies in vietnam
Recommendations for the internal accounting process
As previously stated, lean accounting cannot be isolated from a company's operations. If a
company runs a lean business model, lean accounting will play a more significant role and
becomes more valuable. Fintech companies typically fall into one of two categories: (1) companies
that specifically provide technology and digital utilities (Blockchain, Crowdfunding, Lending,
Fund management, etc. ); and (2) companies that specialize in back-office services, such as
assisting financial institutions in integrating and improving payment functions, data management,
Insuretech, and so on. While the organizational structure, complexity, and flexibility of the
departmental structure and employees of these two types of businesses vary, they are all service
businesses with a technology-based final product.
Manufacturing companies will concentrate on implementing lean accounting in inventory
management and the factory production process. Meanwhile, the activities of Fintech firms have
been a suitable platform to become lean due to the absence of raw materials, inventory, and storage
of products, among other factors. The author suggested that costs in Fintech companies be handled
according to the value stream of each client/order, based on the Value Stream Costing tool, which
means that the resource requirements for each customer/order will be different. Only by
concentrating on cost statistics by product/order would the organization be able to efficiently
monitor prices, track and compare resources of orders of the same/different characteristics, thus
appropriately determining the resources allocated.
To better manage operational performance, capacity (percentage of productive or non-
productive time lead), and to link financial performance to the flow, the author suggests Fintech
companies focus on recording, tracking, and reporting some criteria on Box score as follows:
+ The productivity of employees (number): Unit per person;
+ On-time shipment (%): The ability to meet customer demand;
+ First time through (%): Measure of quality through the entire process, whether there is any rework;
+ Dock-to-dock days (days): Flow time from initiation of the order to delivery to the customer;
+ Productive (%): Time spent adding value during profitable work;
+ Non-productive (%): Time lost to non-added value activities (waste, rework, scrap, downtime,...);
+ Available capacity: Time that is available to new profitable work. Only when lean improvement
releases capacity, the companies would accept more customer’s orders to reap the benefits of
increased profitability;
+ Revenue, cost and profit.
Raising awareness and transparent information about Lean accounting
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According to the results of the study, a reasonably high percentage of survey respondents
agree that their company uses the Lean accounting method. However, whether or not the
perception of lean accounting is right needs to be investigated further. The author recommends
that businesses in general, and Fintech firms in particular, be encouraged to engage in a lean
accounting forum. Not only will technical insights and widely used Lean Accounting tools be
shared at that forum, but accountants will also have the opportunity to discuss lean accounting
activities in their companies. Lean accounting does not require a high level of methodology;
instead, it can be as simple as finding small ways to increase work performance. Accountants will
no longer be concerned about the complexities of the lean accounting principle after the proofs
have been shared, and they will be able to try flexible implementation in practice.
The problem of labour power in a lean company must fully be understood by business owners
and accountants in particular. To generate and maintain lean processes in the workplace,
employees must minimize non-value-added lead time. This is not exploitative since the employees
can have full control over his or her schedule, and set the deadline for completing each job after
the agreement with employers. The employers should, in the meantime, fully publicize policies
for evaluating performance metrics based on quality and quantity parameters. As a result, labor
rates will become more equitable. In addition, it must be emphasized that one of the main
foundations of lean is human and involving people in lean is as important as lean tools. Lean
accounting needs a human system that produces people who are willing and able to identify and
solve them. Therefore, each accountant needs to train themself collaborative behaviors that focus
on continuous improvement and problem-solving.
5.2. Implications of the study
The topic is one of the pioneering studies on Lean accounting with quantitative research
method in Vietnam. First, the topic synthesizes the theoretical framework from many reliable
sources, providing general insights for readers. Second, the topic applies the model of the Theory
of planned behavior — TPB, Innovation Diffusion Theory – IDT, and Technology Acceptance
Model - TAM, discuss and select factors for a new research model. Third, based on data collected
and analyzed, the topic verifies the model's reliability, suitability of the scale and Multivariate
regression of research factors. Fourth, the subject serves as a useful reference for potential research
in the path of psychological-behavioral research in Vietnamese Fintech companies that are
implementing lean accounting model.
In practical terms, research shows that to promote the intention of applying Lean accounting:
First, the accounting functions must be closely linked to the operation of departments in the
company. Accountants should apply Lean accounting tools such as Value Stream Costing and Box
score with criteria that are relevant to the product (services) of Fintech companies. Second, the
selection of the appropriate application of lean accounting should be discussed and evaluated
through the opinions of consultants, communities with experience in lean accounting. Third,
business owners, accountants, and all employees in the company need to correctly understand the
nature of Lean accounting, so that they will be ready to participate in the lean system while
ensuring labor equity and improving work performance and maximizing benefits for customers
and achieving financial benefits.
FTU Working Paper Series, Vol. 2 No. 3 (09/2021) | 111
5.3. Limitations for further study
The biggest limitation of the study is survey forms from Fintech companies only account for
18.5%, not ensuring research scope. The limited number of research samples has not met the
requirements of the factor discovery analysis EFA. Although this sampling defect is influenced by
objective factors, this is a significant weakness that affects the research results. To overcome this
limitation in future studies, the author suggests using Smart PLS software.
Through reliability analysis, there are quite a few observed variables that have been removed
due to the failure to meet the correlation standard. As a result, the questionnaire should be re-
evaluated, and the author should perform a small-scale trial survey to refine the scale. Although
the Trialability factor is sufficient to explain the impact on the Intention factor, the correlation
level is still poor, and the observed variables account for only 52% of the factor. This means that
Trialability has several other manifestations causes that need to be investigated, and that study
needs to broaden the scope of variables observed.
The two limitations listed above are suggestions for future study. Instead of online surveys,
the following research can be conducted directly at Fintech firms to ensure the appropriate subject
of research to be examined. Alternatively, rather than pursuing factor verification in the model,
the study may establish questionnaires for face-to-face interviews to obtain qualitative information
and collect more practical assessments about lean accounting practice in Vietnam before verifying
a specific model.
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